The DRC’s Cobalt Chokepoint Puts Emerging Technologies at Risk

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is by some measures the wealthiest country in the world, sitting atop mineral wealth estimated to be worth tens of trillions of dollars. It also has abundant arable land, and the Congo River holds significant potential for navigation and hydroelectric development. Yet despite this natural endowment, the DRC remains mired in poverty. Most citizens live on less than $2 per day. Only 26 percent have access to clean drinking water and just 9 percent have access to electricity.

The Congo is increasingly central to global conversations on energy and supply chains. The battery revolution, driven by Western markets, cannot occur without Congo’s cobalt. That reality is not open to debate.

Cobalt and Lithium-Ion Batteries

The DRC holds 50 percent of global cobalt reserves and accounts for 70 percent of worldwide production. No other country comes close in terms of either reserves or scalable production. While cobalt is generally found in trace amounts alongside other metals like nickel and copper, the DRC is unique in hosting high concentrations that allow for dedicated extraction at commercial scale.

Lithium-ion battery technology was first introduced by Exxon in the 1970s in response to energy shortages during the Carter-era oil embargo. Mass production began in the 1990s when Sony deployed the technology to power small consumer electronics. Supply chain pressure began in earnest in 2007 when Steve Jobs introduced the iPhone. Since then, billions of smartphones have been sold, each requiring a few grams of refined cobalt. Tablets require around 30 grams. Laptops need more, e-bikes even more, and electric vehicles top the list.

The average EV battery contains approximately one thousand times more cobalt than a smartphone battery. Meeting the 30@30 campaign target of 230 million EVs by 2030, or 30 percent of total global automobile demand, would require cobalt production to increase by a factor of 14 from 2021 levels.

Without cobalt in the cathode, EV batteries are unstable, charge too slowly, wear out too quickly, and lack the energy density required for meaningful driving ranges.

Congo’s Katanga and Global Leverage

The Congo holds a dominant position in cobalt supply, with the majority of its reserves concentrated in a relatively small southeastern zone known as Katanga. This area, which straddles the Copperbelt shared with Zambia, is also rich in copper, iron, zinc, tin, nickel, manganese, germanium, tantalum, tungsten, uranium, gold, silver, and lithium.

Conflict remains a constant feature of the mineral-rich eastern regions of the DRC. The exact drivers of violence are complex, but territorial disputes involving Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda are key factors. Rebel groups are believed to receive funding in part from illegal mineral traders who profit from instability.

In 2021, six companies were responsible for producing 86 percent of the world’s lithium-ion rechargeable batteries. These companies are based in China (CATL and BYD), South Korea (LG, Samsung, SK Innovation), and Japan (Panasonic). China’s CATL leads with a one-third global market share. Most of the cobalt used by these manufacturers originates in the DRC, where extraction is heavily dominated by Chinese firms. The labor is largely conducted by Chinese miners and buyers who extract the metal under difficult and often hazardous conditions. The finished product ends up in consumer electronics and electric vehicles sold in faraway, climate-controlled showrooms.

Efforts by the United States, in coordination with the European Union, aim to disrupt China’s dominance. A new railway, estimated to cost over $1 billion, is planned to connect Angola’s Lobito port to the mineral-rich areas of the DRC and onward to Zambia. Currently, industrial cobalt is extracted from 19 mining complexes in the DRC, 15 of which are owned or financed by Chinese mining companies. The semi-refined cobalt is typically transported to ports in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Durban, South Africa, before being shipped to refiners—most of which are located in China. In 2021, China produced 75 percent of the world’s refined cobalt. Its largest refiner alone held a 22 percent global market share.

The Artisanal Reality

Artisanal mining produces between 30 and 40 percent of the DRC’s total cobalt output. Despite the name, the conditions are neither quaint nor refined. Artisanal mining in the DRC often involves dangerous manual labor with minimal oversight or worker protections. Wages are extremely low and paid on a piece-rate basis. The risks of injury and death are high, with no formal recourse or safety net.

There is no such thing as a clean supply chain when it comes to cobalt in the DRC. yet. Cobalt extracted through artisanal methods is regularly mixed with industrially produced material. Buying houses and depots located near mining pits serve as entry points through which all cobalt, regardless of origin, is blended together. This makes tracing the source of any individual shipment virtually impossible and obscures accountability.

Alternatives and Constraints

1. Mine More Cobalt in the DRC

Despite its reserves, scaling production in the DRC is difficult due to conflict, corruption, and infrastructure gaps. Large-scale mining is technically feasible, but project risk is high. The proposed rail corridor to Angola may unlock investment over time, but near-term results are unlikely.

2. Recycle EV Batteries

Battery recycling is costly and inefficient. Some facilities charge as much as $7,000 to recycle a single EV battery. While future improvements may ease reliance on newly mined cobalt, current solutions are not scalable.

3. Use Less Cobalt

Nickel can partially substitute for cobalt in cathodes, but lower cobalt content reduces stability and energy density. This undermines the core value proposition of EVs, range and safety. Moreover, most nickel is sourced from Indonesia, a country with high corruption risk and close strategic ties to China.

4. Battery Technology Advancements

Solid-state battery technologies offer a potential long-term alternative, but cost barriers remain significant. Widespread commercial adoption is at least ten years away.